Generics Medicines Regulation Comparison

generic wine wine wine wine wines Medicines Regulation ComparisonChapter 1Executive SummaryThis investigate pass on verbalism at the bridal of generic treats in specific triplet countries in atomic number 63 (The Netherlands, Poland and Portugal). These ternion countries give up a signifi reart de realmure in sufferance the reasons for this credence difference trick be explained by several standards which argon use by these countries. In previous look for it is proven that conventions take on a straightaway notion on the acceptation however, this look into depart fuck off a closer look which codes in specific ar grand to stimulate generic euphonys in the commercialize. Results evince that too much principle around the presentation of generic practice of treats in the grocery depart lead to slow growth adoption in the foodstuff comp ard to countries which adopt slight regulation. Recommendations to stimulate the generic medicaments in the f oodstuff leave behind be presented in the last chapter.The problem backgroundA dish of explore has been done on the admission of generic euphonys. Examples take the obstacles to generic electrical switch in Sweden (Anderesson et al. 2005) and the character of generic medicines and the implications for the pharmaceutic commercialize (King Kanavos, 2002).However, on that point is limited cross-country look for examining the relationship mingled with the instruction execution of regulation, the effectuate of in pennyimeives topn to pharmacies and medical students and consecutive adoption of generic medicines.The addressable research is limited to one of these elements, thither has not been made a direct consideration between these elements which figure out the adoption of generic medicines.In 1995 the European Medicine Evaluation Agency (EMEA) offers a EU- wide authorization alimony for which re situated the ongoing single authorization process of each country se pa appraisely, this mode that regulation is harmonized regarding the entry of generic medicines The EMEA pass on approve the generic entry of a medicine before it can be presented on the European pharmaceutical foodstuff. This centralized procedure has mitigated the compliment find outs for generic medicines in the EU resulting in the fact that patent regulation and approval procedures for medicines no longer have a large effect on the surfacement of generics (Danzon, et al. 2003).National regulation be quiet has an impact concerning toll and reimbursement approval which has to be authorized by national authorities. to a greater extentover, it is examined that generics have had more triumph in countries with more flexible charge policies (Garattini Tediosi, 2000) and previous research has shown that the prescription(prenominal) of generic medicines is dependent on the motivators given to apothecary, and another(prenominal)(a) parties (Hellerstein, 1998).Howeve r, with recent reforms in the national regulation organization of ruless across European countries, flexible generic hurt policies and incentives given by the national governments are no longer the main(prenominal) determinants of successful entry of generics on the commercialise. Obligatory generic heterotaxy remainss and other regulations implemented by European governments have become at dominating factor in explaining the adoption of generic medicines as a matter that incentives for physicians, pharmacists and longanimous have rock-bottom due to the obligatory dodging (Timonen, et al. 2009).This dissertation gives an overview of the relation between the adoption of generic medicines and the regulation in triplet European countries The Netherlands, Portugal and Poland. These countries are chosen because they have diverse implementations in regulation concerning generics and the adoption rate in these countries differs significantly. Recommendations for European cou ntries and a conclusion round the most trenchant method to accession the use of generic medicines in relation with regulation go out be exposed.The problem statementThe differences among trio countries (The Netherlands, Portugal and Poland), concerning the adoption of generic medicines in relation with regulation and influencing incentives in these European countries.The motive to present these specific three countries is resulting from the fact that the adoption train of generic medicines differs significantly. whence a clear image can be provided between the differences of adoption connected with the accompanying regulation adopted in that country concerning generic medicinesDependent variable adoption of generic medicines nonsymbiotic variable 1 regulation of generics medicines query QuestionsResearch question 1What are the differences in regulation astir(predicate) the use of generic medicines among the Netherlands, Portugal Poland?Research question 2What is the role of these regulations on the adoption of generics?RelevanceThe dissertation should give European countries and in particular reality policy makers, a clear image on the effects incentives can have concerning the adoption of generic when prescribing these medicines, and which type of regulation is the most effective for the increase in adoption of generics.Managerial perspectiveThe prescription of generic medicines is intensively regulated. This results in many implications for pharmaceutical companies especi each(prenominal)y, concerning the implementation of generic medicines in the commercialise. Considering, the fact that the regulation of the prescription of generic medicines has a direct effect on the use of generic medicines. Therefore the adoption aim for generic medicines is likely to stir when the regulation changes. determine strategies for pharmaceutical companies have a diminishing effect due to the strict pricing regulation implemented by unexclusive policy makers.Bran ding strategies are samely complicated to implement in the pharmaceutical industry because of the many regulations adopted. However, stigmatizeing strategies are very important they can strengthen the bond between the buyer and the seller (Blackett Robins, 2001). pharmaceutical companies have to make important decisions regarding the implementation of the generic medicines in the market. They should be aware of all regulation to be able to compete in the pharmaceutical industry.Academic perspectiveCountry-specific results have been presented in several paper how regulation influences the use and adoption of generic medicines. However, a cross-country research on the effects of regulations implemented, in relation to the adoption of generic medicines. More specifically, the effects of incentives, given by policy makers, to pharmaceutical companies and the accompanying selling strategies implemented by pharmaceutical companies, have not been examined earlier.Overview of the Rest of the ChaptersChapter 2This chapter gives an overview on the question What are the differences in adoption of generic medicines between the Netherlands, Portugal and Poland?These three countries impart be investigated carefully previous literature studies allow for give a clear image nigh the actual adoption of generic medicines in these countries.Background information will be presented to watch the structure of the chosen countries and the differences in adoption.Chapter 3Data will be gathered to come to an answer to the research question 1 What are the differences in regulation about the use of generic medicines among the Netherlands, Portugal Poland?Chapter 4Chapter intravenous feeding will explain the role of regulation on the adoption rate of generic medicines (research question 2).Chapter5Public policy makers are in customary in favour of increasing the use of generic medicines, because of the market advantages. Chapter 5 will give an overview of the most effective p olicy which is use among the three countries presented earlier in the thesis.Further recommendation to the common policy makers and limitations of the research will be dealt with in this chapter. A conclusion of this research will be presented.Chapter 2 differences in adoption of generic medicinesThis chapter will give an answer to the differences concerning the adoption of generic medicines between the Netherlands, PortugalandPoland.The level of generic medicine adoption differs significantly across Europe. This chapter will have a look at these differences and the resulting factors that have lead to these differences in adoption.Other implications such as different policy regulations and incentives given to pharmacist by the policy makers will be dealt with in chapter 3. They will be dealt whit in a separate chapter because they are dominant factors in the adoption of generic medicines.A distinction can be made between mature generic markets and developing generic markets (Simoe ns, 2009). The level of adoption of generic medicines in these countries differs from less than 10 per cent to more than 40 per cent. The share value in the market for generic medicines is 8.8 per cent for the Portugal, 19.8 per cent in the Netherlands and Poland ranks the top with 65.2 per cent (A check up on on the European, n.d.).Comparing these send offs with other European countries, Portugal falls in the get down range of adoption and Poland is situated in the upper range of the adoption level of generic medicines in their market. concord to Simoens and Coster, (2006), Poland and the Netherlands are seen as mature generic markets in Europe, while Portugal is seen as a developing market.There are several factors (historical background and heathen elements), which have influenced the adoption rate of generic medicines in these countries. Clarifications of these elements are verbalise below.Historical backgroundAn interpretation for the differences in adoption of generic me dicines can partially be explained by the historical differences between the Netherlands, Portugal and Poland.In western sandwich Europe, pricing and reimbursement policies naturally developed as an evolutionary economic process. However, this was not the case for Central and Eastern Europe states (CEE) which are now members of the EU. These CEE countries used to have a socia makeic type of economy, and after the fall of the Berlin palisade (1989) many of those countries faced political and economic bankruptcy. Large-scale reform was essential in every single sector to guarantee their economical and political well being. The wellness care outline was overly a part of this sector and even today, ongoing reforms are taking place. There is still a lot that has to be done in the CEE countries, specifically inside the health care dust. Hospital decentralization, modernization and privatization and pricing and reimbursement policies are both(prenominal) examples of areas where furthe r development is preferred (Kazakov, 2007).These necessary reforms and changes are also applicable to Poland. The Netherlands and Portugal do not suffer from these reforms, due to fact of not having a communistic history.Another implication of this socialist history is the fact that Poland was already used to adopt generic medicines, as brand medicines were not available in these countries due the absence of ware patents until early 1990s (Simoens de Coster, 2006). pagan elementsCultural sensitivity is one of the most astray accepted principles among public health (Resnicow, et all. 2000). According to Resnicow (2000), heathen sensitivity indicates The extent to which ethnic/cultural characteristics, experiences, norms, values, behavioral patterns, and beliefs of a target population as well as relevant historical, environmental, and social forces are incorporated in the design, delivery, and evaluation of targeted health promotion materials and programs (page 272).The relation b etween the pharmacist and the pharmaceutical representative can have a huge impact on the prescription of medicines and accordingly on the adoption of generic medicines.Historical developments in Poland have created a positive attitude towards prescribing generic medicines, as prescribing generic medicines has been a rough-cut practice in Poland until the early 1990s. In the Netherlands, on the other hand, generic substitution is more driven by the pharmacist (Simoens de Coster, 2006).On come a pharmaceutical company will spend twice as much on marketing to the pharmacist and the public than on research and development (Zipkin, et all. 2005).A more detailed view about the adoption rate of generic medicines concerned the three countries (the Netherlands, Poland and Portugal) are presented belowThe NetherlandsThe Dutch generic market has grown rapidly over time public expenditure has increased from 185 million euro in 1994, resulting in a market share value of 8.5 per cent. In 200 4 the market share has increased to 17.7 per cent this sum that the value has almost doubled. The market share increased also dramatically from 19.9 per cent in 1994 to 44.3 percent in 2004 (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Results from an EGA survey conducted in 2007 show that the market share of generic medicines has increased to more than 50 per cent (see figure 2 and 3 in attachment B).Poland overdue to historical implications mentioned before, Poland has a very mature generic market. In 2006 the market shares of Poland were 60 per cent by value and close to 80 per cent by script (see figure 2 and 3 in appendix B).PortugalIn the 1990s the generic medicines adoption in Portugal did not run more than 1 per cent. An introduction in the generic policy in the year 2000 caused for an increase in market share of 8 per cent measured until 2004. An explanation of the generic policy will be provided in chapter 3 (Simoens de Coster, 2006).Recent results from an EGA survey implemented in 200 7 show that the market share has slightly increased to almost 10 per cent (see figure 2 and 3 in appendix B).Chapter 3 differences in regulation about the use of generic medicinesWhat are the differences in regulation about the use of generic medicines among the Netherlands, Portugal Poland?There are several domains in regulation which will eventually influence the structure of the market and determine how the pharmaceutical companies can operate most effectively in this pharmaceutical market. This thesis presents the most important domains where regulations are implemented market authorisation, pricing, incentives, and marketing implications. securities industry authorisationIn Europe, the process regarding market authorisation is very complex. grocery access for generic medicines may differ from country to country this holds there is little transparency regarding the entry of generic medicines in Europe.A pharmaceutical company may receive market authorisation to enter the marke t in a specific country. However, other regulations regarding the reimbursement and price of the generic product still need to be determined by the government. This means the process, concerning the entry of the generic medicine, can be delayed up to three multiplication (A Review on the European generic pharmaceutical market in 2005, n.d.).The EU directive was introduced to create a better system regarding the entry of generic medicines in Europe. There is a transparency directive, 89/105/atomic number 63, which specifies that there is a 90 day limit regarding the reimbursement and pricing decision. However, the time delays vary from country to country (Garattini Tediosi, 2000).The dining table below (A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005, n.d.) gives an overview of the times delays per country for price approval to enter the market.With respect to the countries in this thesis, the table above (A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2 005, n.d.). shows the followingPoland does not have a time delay because the pricing and reimbursement approvals are granted together with the market authorisation of the generic medicines.In the Netherlands, we can see a delay of between 10 and 15 days which could be defined as a relatively efficient time to approval compared to other countries in Europe.Portugal is very inefficient with the entry of the generic medicines, the status of pricing and reimbursement will however be given after a 90-day delay (A Review on the European, n.d.).PricingPrice regulations are only applicable when the generic medicines will be reimbursed. The most effective regulation is a price restriction on the maximum reimbursement of that specific medicine or a maximum price that pharmaceutical companies may rout out the medicine users (Danzon Keuffel, 2007).Most European countries, including the countries in this study, have introduced a abduce book price system. A seed price system entails that there are regulations which will restrict the reimbursement level of generic medicines, but that the price of the generic medicines itself will be uncontrolled. Under the bring up price system, assemblages are constellate into certain reimbursement level, based either on the same compound or different compounds but with the same mode of action or with a similar name.All products that are placed in the same group are reimbursed at the same price per daily dose, which is also called the reference price. In general, the reference price in a group will be set at the level of the cheapest medicine or the normal in that group. If pharmaceutical manufacturing businesss price their product above the reference price, the user of the generic medicines needs to pay the outstanding amount above the reference price.There are two different pricing systems in Europe a generic put out pricing system and a generic price-regulated system. Both systems determine the degree of adoption of generic medicines. In a generic free pricing system companies can decide on the height of the price of a new generic medicine introduced in the market themselves, in contrary to a price regulated system (Simoens, 2010).The reference pricing system has three levels of implementation, the higher the level of the system is, the more the prices are regulated.Poland has a low reference pricing system, the Netherlands could be defined as a medium reference pricing system and Portugal uses a high reference pricing system.As presented in the table below (Bongers Carradinha, 2009), one can see which European countries fall in a regulated price system and have no free pricing system.Consumer implicationsThe endurings themselves (the remove side) play an important role in the prescription of generic medicines. Physicians and pharmacists and other contributing parties will rate generic medicines to wither the costs for the payer, which is in this case the consumer of the medicine.Patient co-paymen tPricing and reimbursement systems play a role for the patient. The patient will contribute to the financing of the health care system, in particular with the co-payment position. This is a common practice in all European countries (with the exception of Malta), but the implementation of co-payment differs significantly across countries. Nevertheless, in all countries that employ a co-payment arrangement a financial ploughshare is made by the medicine user. Patient co-payment arrangements can strongly influence the end decision of the patient on which medicines to take (A Review on the European Generic Pharmaceutical Market in 2005, n.d.). The reimbursement of generic medicines is taken care of through an insurance model however the co-payment arrangement is based on a piece of the cost of the medicine (Kazakov, 2007).Pricing regulation related to the countries in the thesisThe Netherlands uses an enforcing pricing regulation, which sets a maximum for the pricing of medicines. In 1996, this system was implemented. In general, it led to a decrease of 15 per cent of the average medicine price in the market (Simoens de Coster, 2006).However, the prices of generic medicines in the Netherlands still tended to be higher compared to other EU countries. Mediation in short-term pricing strategies such as implementing similar pricing systems, have increased and stimulated the share in the markets for generic medicines, where competition already existed (Bongers Carradinha, 2009).Polish medicine prices tend to be lower compared to other EU countries. They work with a price regulated system for generic medicines. The pharmaceutical companies want to be absorbed in the reimbursement list for medicines. The reference price in Poland is set just below or just above the cheapest generic medicines in the Polish market (Simoens, 2009).Pharmaceutical companies may price their product above the reference price, taking into estimate that as a result they will not be placed o n the reimbursement list (Kazakov, 2007).Portugal established a regulation which says that the minimum price difference of generic medicines and brand medicines should be a least 35 per cent in 2001. In 2005 Portugal agreed to reduce the overall medicine prices by 6 per cent. Of that 6 per cent 4.17 per cent had to be trim back by the pharmaceutical company and the other 1.93 per cent had to be minify by the wholesalers and pharmacists. The reference price system was introduced in 2003 where the reference price was set at the level of the most expensive generic medicine (Simoens de Coster, 2006).Despite the fact Portugal has a developed market, the market share concerning generic medicines is still relatively low compared to other countries in Europe. Regardless, of the fact that companies producing generic medicines provide affordable treatments to patients, other savings can only be achieved if government supply side policy initiatives are designed to increase the competitivene ss of generic medicines in the market (Bongers Carradinha, 2009).IncentivesTo establish a generic medicine market, the supply side (pricing system) needs to be supplemented by demand side policies which create incentives for physicians, pharmacists, and patients to use generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006).The NetherlandsInstruments to promote generic medicines have been in place for a long time and have been widely accepted in the Netherlands (Vogler Schmickl, 2010).Incentives for physiciansThe Dutch government has stimulated physicians to govern generic medicines, which is supported by an electronic prescription system. In the Netherlands it is customary to develop and implement guidelines and treatment protocols on how to regularise generic medicines in outrank to efficiently increase the adoption of generic medicines. An important feature is that there are no sanctions for physicians who do not prescribe generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006).Incentives for pha rmacistsGeneric substitution is allowed for the pharmacist when the physician and the patient agree with it, however, it could be indicated by the physician that generic substitution is not permitted due to health reasons. This means that when a branded drugs patent has expired pharmacists are allowed to distribute a generic substitution unless indicated otherwise by the physician. Health insurers have also agreed upon several targets for the pharmacist in distributing generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). Generic substitution has been connected to financial incentives for the pharmacist for a long time, however these incentives have been abolished since 2004. Nevertheless, the adoption in the market of generic substitution has not decreased (Vogler Schmickl, 2010).Incentives for the patientsIn the Netherlands the patients do not have a financial incentive to buy generic medicines because there are no patient co-payments arrangements. Nevertheless, patients do have to pay t he outstanding amount when the price of the medicines is above the reference price, which is set by the government (Simoens de Coster, 2006).PolandIncentives for physiciansPhysicians are not intensively boost to prescribe generic medicines. Due to the historical background physicians are already accustomed with the use and prescription of generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006).Incentives for pharmacistGeneric substitution is allowed by pharmacists whenever a branded drug is prescribed a pharmacist may replace this by a generic substitution. Pharmacists are have to inform the patients about the generic substitution. Price reductions implemented by pharmaceutical companies encourage pharmacists to prescribe generic medicines (Simoens, 2009).Incentives for the patientThere are tetrad levels of reimbursement for the patient.The first level includes a fixed amount per prescription which will be reimbursed when these are essential medicines. The second and third level brood of supplementary medicines which will be charged to the patient through the co-patient system. The patients have to pay 30 to 50 per cent themselves. The fourth level holds that other prescribed medicines which are not on the reimbursement list will be fully paid by the medicine user (the patient). However, initiatives to inform the patients about generic medicines have not been presented (Simoens de Coster, 2006).PortugalIncentives for physiciansIn 2002, a regulation was implemented in Portugal which formulated that from that moment on physicians would be obliged to prescribe a generic medicine if possible. However, physicians and pharmacists are free to add brand medicines to prescriptions that include more than one medicine, of which at least one is generic. The physicians are to inform the patient about other generic medicines and the accompanying price differences. Even though guidelines are available, the system has not been fully implemented. An explanation for this is that the physicians and the pharmacists are neither being rewarded for prescribing, nor being punished when not prescribing generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006).Incentives for pharmacistsPhysicians can indicate whether they permit generic substitution on the prescription form. In the cases that generic substitution is allowed by the physician, the pharmacists have to prescribe the cheapest generic medicines available. Pharmacists do not have any financial incentive to prescribe generic medicines as the generic margins for pharmacists have been dramatically low since the introduction of the regulation in 2005 (the overall reduction of generic medicines prices) (Simoens de Coster, 2006).Incentives for patientsPortugal has 5 different levels of reimbursement.In the first level 100 per cent of the medicine will be reimbursed when they are classified as life saving. The second level holds that 95 per cent of the medicines will be reimbursed, the third level holds 70 per cent, the fourth level 40 per cent, and the fifth level holds a percentage of 20 per cent.Patients with a low income will receive a 15 per cent additional compensation on the stated reimbursement level.Until 2005, patients were rewarded with a 10 per cent additional reimbursement when they asked for a generic substitution. However, with the abolishment of the reward system of 10 per cent, the patient will now only receive a price reduction of 6 per cent for the use of generic medicines. The patient does not have an incentive but rather a discourage effect to use generic medicines. Nevertheless, pro-generic campaigns have been introduced by the government since 2006 the effects of these campaigns are not yet clear (Simoens de Coster, 2006).Previous research shows that the patient co-payment arrangement in Poland and Portugal plays a visible role in stimulate the use and adoption for generic medicines (Simoens de Coster, 2006). For an overall overview of the regulation implemented across these th ree countries a table is presented below.Marketing implicationsA generic medicine should appear under the international non-proprietary name (INN). This entails, that a generic medicine should be marketed without a commercial brand name but in fact, three categories there can be distinguished branded generics (copies of generic medicines with their own brand name), semi-branded generics (products marketed under the INN following the name of the manufacturer of the medicines) and medicines marketed under INN (Garattini Tediosi, 2000).The EU directive 65/65/EEC was established, to approve marketing of a drug.An allowance for introducing a generic medicine and lucubrate these medicines should be supported by several data available of the generic medicines (for example clinical data.)There are a lot of restrictions concerning advertisements and promotion activities of pharmaceutical products. These are presented by the The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union (200 4) .Together with price regulation, advertising plays an important role in the pharmaceutical market. In general patients are uninformed about the most effective and available treatments, they depend on the diagnosis and treatment suggestion from the physician. Since the physician will prescribe the medicine it can be stated that they will directly affect the extent of competition between different treatments and medicines available. Therefore it not remarkable that the physician is the target of huge advertisement campaigns and that detailing in the pharmaceutical industry is mainly focused on physicians (Knigbauer, 2006).The volume of detailing in the pharmaceutical market depends on several factors such as the prevalence of the disease, the amount of competition for the medicine, the number of physicians who might prescribe the generic medicines, and like any other product in a market, taking into account the product life cycle of the product (Berndt, et al 2007).Chapter 4What is the role of these regulations on the adoption of generics?Market authorisation flattery of generic medicinesThe success of a gene

Determinants That Cause The Demand Curve To Shift Economics Essay

Determinants That Cause The expect Curve To Shift Economics Essay strike means that the willingness of a buyers to buy a straightforwards and able to buy a goods at a different cost levels. The law states that the pauperization crease is a downward sloping graph which shows that there is a interdict relationship between the impairment of a product and the step of a product. When a price of a product rises, the quantity chooseed will decrease. On the other hand, when the price of a product falls, the quantity dealed will growing. pauperization is a press either rightward or leftward in the demand cut down. Demand curve will commute leftward if the consumers decide to buy less, and the demand curve will shift rightward if the consumers decide to buy more. Decrease in demand will cause the demand curve to shift leftward. There ar many determinants that cause the demand curve to shift.Price of coke $ descriptor 5.1D0D1Quantity of cokeOne of the determinants that cause th e demand curve to shift is expectation. For example, if the price of a coke expected will fall beside month, the quantity demand will also decrease. So, this is as shown in gauge 5.1. As the demand decrease, the demand curve will definitely shift leftward from D0 to D1.Besides, the price of substitutes and complements good will cause the demand curve to shift. complemental goods argon good that are used together. For example, gaseous state and car. If the price of petrol rise, this will cause the quantity demand for car decrease. Substitute good are good that can be replaced with another good. For example, butter and margarine. If the price of butter fall, the quantity of margarine will definitely shift leftward. Besides, the try out and income will also cause the demand curve to shift.Quantity demand is a movement upward or downward in the demand curve. The only factor that will cause the movement is the price of the goods itself. For example, the price of an apples decrease from $2.50 to $1.90. This will cause the demand curve to move downward (from point A to B). Besides, the quantity demand definitely will increase from 4 to 7 as it applied the law of demand. As the price of an apple decrease, the quantity demanded will increase. This is shown in Figure 5.2.Price of an apple $2.50 A1.90 B Figure 5.20 Quantity for apples4 7Part BIncome elasticity of demand means that the percentage tack in quantity demanded dividing the percentage change in households income.There are 3 types of degrees of income elasticity of demand (YED). If the income elasticity of demand is greater than 0, accordingly this elasticity is a positive YED. But this positive YED is categorized into two types. First, if the quantity demanded of a good rise a smaller numerate of percentage compare to the income of the households, this is known as a normal good. A normal good normally does not responsive to the changes in the quantity demanded of the good. This is also known as inco me elastic since (0

Importance Of Soil Conservation Environmental Sciences Essay

Importance Of smut Conservation Environmental Sciences Essay denary determination of the extent and impact of crack erosion by irrigate in the tropics concur been sketchy. However all easy prove indicates that accelerated erosion is a problem of in force(p) magnitude and with a multitude of negative effects in many a(prenominal) tropical countries. The sentiency to conserve stigma began approximately nine thousand years ag peerless when human civilization shifted from nomadic hunting and gathering experience to a more permanent, settled and intensive nation-dependent lay down and animal farming systems (Miller, Rasmussen and Meyer, 1985). smear provides the ordinary from which about of the sustenance for humankind is derived. This thin, complex, crustal carpet uniquely integrates many attributes of the lithosphere, atomosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere (Miller, Rasmussen and Meyer 1985). dry land is regarded as a nonre bare-assable source since its formation from the rise up rock material to an agriculturally productive growth medium is a genuinely slow process (Lal 1990). The top reason is where intimately of the living activities of twain flora and fauna take place. According to Brady and Weil 1999, the top deformity is the stop number most routine of the soil ordinarily moved in farming ara or its equivalent in uncultivated soils which range in prescience from 7 to 25 cm (the plow layer). Removal of this plant alimentary enriched topsoil due to soil erosion would result in morose of soil fertility through losses of both radical discipline and nutrients which would result in step-down of crop brooks (Lal 1986 rose and Dalal 1988). This loss in soil productivity due to erosion is serious in caribbean countries where fertiliser substitute for the lost plant nutrients is not affordable. This would lead to poorer soil write characteristics such as low organic proceeds levels (Rose 1989Rose 1998).Soil Erosion is perhaps the m ost serious form of solid ground degradation throughout the world. For the tropics specifically, while it is acknowledged that erosion is more serious than else where, no analytical or systematic studies have been chthonictaken to document the problem, it consequences or potential solutions. Soil erosion results in lost water and plant nutrients at rates even greater than those occurring naturally through leach ( Brady and Weil 1999). If there are no preservation practices present, soil erosion go away occur and arena degradation, reduced productivity due to loos of top soil, increase run make and off site sedimentation problems (such as siltation of bodies of water and injure to crops and roads) will occur. The consequent socio-economic costs of sometimes more obvious off site damage are commonly easier to identify and quantify (Chrisholm 1987 Rose 1993).1.2 Soil Conservation StrategiesThe caribbean is characterized by steep slopes. The degrees of steepness and the proporti on of the pull down area classified as steep may vary. In Trinidad and Tobago, a larger propotion of steep slopes is still covered with natural vegetation which reduces the soil washed off the surface. Trinidad is marked with a long dry inure in the early part of the year and then followed by an main(prenominal) wet season. Most erosion occurs when the land is cleared of vegetation for farming. This normally occurs just before the rainy season. It is all important(predicate) to bank note however that most food crop exertion in Trinidad as well as the rest of the Caribbean, is carried out by small farmers on sloping land with no attention to soil saving practices. This is the main reason for grave soil erosion in Trinidad and Tobago and by extension the Caribbean.Soil saving is understood as not only involving the control of loss of soil material due to erosion but also the decline in fertility (chemical, physical and biological breakdown of the soil). (Young 1984). The adve rse effect of soil erosion is not engrossed only to decrease in soil insight but ultimately to the loss loss of organic matter and plant nutrients and consequently to degradation of soil physical properties and crop damp decline ( Young 1984). It is important to note however that treating the benefits of soil conservation in isolation from other agricultural gains does not assure espousal of the soil conservation practice (Young 1984). Integration of soil conservation is important ( Douglas 1988 Shaxson 1988).Sheng and Meiman (1988) stated reasons for the difficulty of farmers in adopting soil conservation practice. The reasons are as follows i) long time for the result of soil conservation to be fulfild, ii) naming of benefits from soil conservation and iii) the need for big investments by farmers. It is important to note however that Williams and Walter (1988), in a terracing project in Venezuela, found that improvement in the living incomes and opportunites for employmen t, increases the difficulty of motivating the farmers to adopt soil conservation practices. Apparently when low income and underemployment prevail, farmers easily participate in soil conservation programmes (Williams and Walter 1988 Liao et al 1988).The adverse effect of soil erosion is not confined only to loss of soil particles but also the loss of organic matter and plant nutrients. As a result of this crop yield decline will occur (Young 1984). Conservation farming should serve as the basis for counteracting the problem of soil erosion. To carry out this feeler in developing countries, novel approaches in extension and research are needed. The volume of the soil conservation techniques were super-developed in the United States of the States under condtions different from the other parts of the world experiencing erosion (Sheng, 1982 Hudson 1988 Sheng 1988). The techniques that worked well in the United States were extrapolated to the tropics in the 1930s and 1940s. It took fi fty years to realize that these methods were unsuitable for the tropics ( Hudson,1987 Hudson 1988). The dominant traditional farming system in the tropics are the shifting cultivation and related bush unplowed systems (Okigbo and Greenland, 1976). The non-acceptance of the many recommendations on soil conservation methods is attributed to their in appropriateness and horror with the farmers operating environment (Douglas, 1988).The following agricultural conditions in the United States of America paved the way for the development of soil conservation activities (Hudson,1982Hudson 1987)Combined straightforward topography and favourable climateLow population pressure for intensive land useStrong and sustained government support well improve and informed husbandry sectorReadily available credit and pecuniary supportReliable prices and market outlets for agricultural produceHighly developed and highly mechanized agricultural industry.According to Hudson (1987), the absence of thes e conditions in most developing countries made the North American approach to soil conseration in appropriate. The absence of political will, or the limitations in or lack of resources oftentimes hindered soil conservation programmes in developing countries. The main aim of soil conservation should be preventation rather than cure. Soil conservation activity should be focused mainly on preserving good land rather than reclaiming dishonored land. Without waiting for visible soil erosion damage, farmers should be encouraged to clear that there is a need for soil conservation due to keep reduction in agricultural yield (Hudson, 1987).Loss of agricultural productivity should be emphasized in any soil conservation programme. For sometime, soil erosion research activities had almost been exclusively directed towards uantfying soil loss, and then data on the effect of soil erosion on agriculture productivity is seriously lacking (Crosson and Stout, 1983 ASAE,1985 Follet and Stewart, 1985 Stocking, 1985). Removal of topsoil resulted in decline of yield of a variety of agricultural crops (El-Swaify, Dangler and Amstrong 1982). Factors like type of soil, depth of soil, fertility status, topography, and type of crop affected the size of the decline in agricultural yield (Frye et al, 1982 Langdale and Schrader, 1982 Schertz 1983). There is limited data for soil and crops in the tropics (Lal, 1977). The effects of soil erosion on soil productivity in the tropics are move unplayful than for temperate countries (Moberg, 1972). This is because of highly weathered soils, fragile fertility status and most crop nutrents are found in the topmost layer of the soil. There is also large deterioration of physical qualities of the soil as a growing medium after soil erosion (Lo, 1990). Higher erosion rates, the more severe changes in chemical qualities resulting from erosion and the inability of the farmer to provide the necessary inputs for restoring those qualities to a suf ficient level were the primary reasons given for these conclusions (El-Swaify, 1990). The benefits of soil conservation are not immediately realized in every slip and may initially result in crop yield reductions (John 1988). good in agricultural production, rather than mitigating soil erosion, is of more significance and lovable for the farmer, while prevention of soil loss is an unreal concept for them (Hudson, 1987). The new approach of soil conservation will be a potpourri of both agronomy measures as well as automatonlike working ( Tracy, 1988). Mechanical systems are frequently expensive, consume space and time, need uniform tending and do not assure improved crop production (Roose, 1988). Too much emphasis put into mechanical works discourages in effect(p) soil conservation policies (Rose, 1989). Conservation farming systems include improved farming, with mechanical protection works being a component of last resort. This approach is consistent with the principle that improved agricultural production should lead to let on soil erosion control (Hudson 1988). Biological measures provide immediately recognizable short term benefits to farmers. Any mechanical work confused in soil conservation must maximize the use of locally available experts, minimize, the use of structures and required labour. Community involvement must be involved (Hudson, 1987).To gain acceptance by farmers, any proposed soil conservation outline should offer short-term, apparent, rapid or immediately recognizable, directly effective benefits and confirmative results, particularly for subsistence farmers who work in a short-time scale and who comprise a large percentage of farmers in less developed countries (Harper and El-Swaify 1988 Hudson,1988 Lovejoy and Naiper, 1988 Sanders, 1988 Thomas 1988 Tracy, 1988 Wenner, 1988 Williams and Walter, 1988). Soil conservation techniques recommended for farmers should be simple, easily understood and demonstrated, low cost, productiv e, sustainable and welcome (Douglas, 1988Vonk 1988). Conservation measures should involve principles that can be applied to more than one situation. However, methods and techniques are often site specific and caution should be exercised in extrapolating them to other sites (Saunders 1988).Adoption of soil conservation technology is assured if the farmers have full understanding, support and participation in all the stages of the project, from planning, implementation to maintenance (Harper and El-Swaify, 1988 Sanders, 1988 Vonk 1988 Tracy 1988). Farmers full participation is ensured if they are convinced that their relevant and important postulate can be adequately met (Sanders 1988). Thus the farmer needs to be recognized as part of the solution rather than a part of the problem (Hudson,1987 Hudson,1988).

Consideration of baseline in EIA

Consideration of service line in EIAConsideration of baseline in EIAChapter one Introduction 1.1 EIA and baseline purlieual impact assessment, EIA was developed in graze to provide decision professrs with an understanding of the milieual consequences of a proposed development. It provides reading on the nature and extent of impacts arising from the construction and operation of proposed projects. This is presented in environmental reports that contain randomness require by the EIA directives. These required information may include a commentary of the proposed project, an extinctline of main project alternatives, description and assessment of aspects of environment likely to be signifi bungholetly affected by the proposed development and a description of measures established to manage signifi kittyt unfortunate cause on the environment. A key element of EIA is to provide equal to(predicate) description of the current environment condition, otherwise referred to as baseli ne assessment. They argon often referred to as the environmental preenting, existing conditions, affected environment, background environment, environmental conditions, environmental receptors, and baseline data (Shepherd, 2006, Canter 1996, Eccleston, 2001). The need for its consideration in EIA is a topic raised by several seekers (Wood 2003, Glasson et al., 2005, Carroll and Turpin 2009, Lawrence 2003, Morris and Therivel 2009, Wathern, 1992). For them baseline can be regarded as the main support for the EIA dish, which identifies existing environmental conditions and germane(predicate) potential atomic number 18as that may be affected by a proposed project. The immensity of baseline is also manifested in EU regulations. It is moreover put down in EIA directives (schedule 4, part 11) that the current environmental conditions of the canvas area, its possible future phylogenesis and technical deficiencies/ limitation experienced while carrying out the study should be report ed in an environmental statement.Studies (Wathern 1992, Glasson et al., 2005 Andre et al., 2004, Wood, 2007) revealed that despite its roles and benefits in the EIA process, the aspects of baseline considered carcass substandard. Questions on the definition, methodology, specific aspects to be considered, remain an issue. 1.2 Contextual reexaminationBaseline is a preliminary step in the EIA process which is implemented in the UK through the Town and Country planning (SI 1999 N0 293) Regulations 1988 and the subsequent 1999, 2000, 2006, 2008 amendments. Theories take for revealed though it is recognized that collection of appropriate and sufficient, baseline data can be time consuming and expensive. In spite of this, the value of this information can produce a significant outcome on the grapheme of the boilersuit EIA process.1.3 The interrogationThis inquiry intends to address the subject of baseline in EIA process. It go forth look specifically at the cultivate of baseline o n the EIA process. It begins by describing the origins and doctrine of EIA with particular reference to its legislative beginnings, secondly, the issue of slap-up quality baseline and lastingness of EIA is discussed, research approach is then outlined and the findings of the studies are presented and analysed. The findings of the research are considered in comparison with the writings, with reference to its more substantial purposes before drawing conclusions and possible recommendations. Moreover, there has been limited investigation to run across on baseline and how it operates the out come of EIA process in practice. It is accordingly expected that this dissertation would add to the knowledge on baseline and make recommendations on baseline implementation in EIA process.1.4 Aim Overall intent isTo determine how baseline influence EIA process decision making and advocate the importance of baseline in EIA process.1.5 Research questions and Hypothesis In prepare to pursue the aim identified above, a set of research questions bemuse been developed which when answered enable the research aims to be achieved. Responding to this question is the focus of the dissertation.Questions to be answered include How are baseline currently addressed in ES? Does adequate baseline study influence EIA decision making process?For this research the shot has been formulated thatGood baseline quality contributes to trenchantness of the EIA processThe formulation of this hypothesis was influenced by the EIA regulation requirement for baseline information and also limited knowledge on baseline influence in EIA decision making process.1.5 Dissertation structureBased on the research aims and hypothesis the structure of the dissertation is divided into seven chapters and is set as follows Chapter 1 IntroductionThe dissertation begins with an introductory part to set out an overview of EIA process, explaining how the baseline fits into the EIA process. The research aim is th en identified and hypothesis is formulated and justified for the purpose of this research. A brief analysis of the research approach and contents of subsequent chapters are then revealed.Chapter 2 methodologyThis chapter outlines the research methodology, the parameters of the literature search, selection of pertinent information and research limitations. Provides elaborate of evaluation framework developed to analyse the chosen environmental statements, relevant planning files and interview approach and structure.Chapter 3 Background Following the methodology, this chapter sets out a literature check out as the backbone of this research. The structure of the literature review is based on EIA and baseline. It starts by examining the concept of EIA and it various go attention is based more on how baseline fits into the overall EIA process.Chapter 4 Criteria for effective EIA process and good practice baseline This chapter sets out the branch stage of the methodology. It explor es the terms used in developing the research hypotheses i.e. effective EIA and good quality baseline in order to develop a checklist for the review. This was achieved by information from various researchers who have studied EIA effectiveness and good practice baseline and also notes from existing guidance documents and existing EIA/EIS review criteria.Chapter 5 Presentation of result and analysis This chapter Outlines presentation of results and analysis of the interviews and reviews of EISs. expand on results and findings of the 3 research are then discussed, linking the theoretical perspectives and frameworks discussed to that of practice.Chapter 6 ConclusionFinally, the conclusion is drawn whilst connecting the research hypothesis and literature review to the content of the dissertation, limitation is outlined and recommendations are drawn.Appendices Relevant appendices of supporting information follow a bibliography of information sources. cecal appendage A lists acronyms used in this research,Appendix B lists EIA directive requirements of information to be presented on the ES. Appendix C lists the summary of the four statements reviewed, a summary of the interview in concert with their individual responses are attached as appendix D. A summary of the findings of the review are then attached as appendix E.1.7 relevancy of the research topic to phase of studyThe course of study Environmental assessment and management deals with natural resource management and planning. Specifically, management of the environment and project coordination.EIA was introduced as an environmental management tool its purpose and principle plays an important role in planning system of UK environment. It involves assessment of a specific environment to identify impacts and develop measures of controlling the impacts that may arrive as a result of a proposed development in order to enhance the environment. Baseline is an initial step in the EIA. There have been numerous questions on how EIA achieves its primary purposes. In this case, it is important to evaluate baseline which is one of the initial steps to highlight how it helps achieve its purposes.In general, the course aims to provide student with an understanding of principles methods and procedure in EAM. EIA is central to environment assessment and management. Hence, it is evident that the research topic is relevant to the course of study and its proposed aim is expected to be achieved.1.8 OverviewIn summary, the EIA regulation indicates that the data required for any project which is likely to generate significant environmental effects must be assessed and stated in an environmental statement. In addition, the influence of baseline on outcome of EIA is limited. This research sets out to address this issue. For this purpose, research aim and hypothesis have been developed, to set out research questions in order to identify a focus of the research. A methodology adopt for this purpose is exposed in t he next chapter. Drawing generalization from research investigation and providing information for subsequent replication of studies, suggestions are made most the types of information to include when describing baseline conditions in this research.

Design of Mobile Banking Application

Design of rambling Banking Application fluent bordering is the topic of at once as earnings swearing was a few years ago. 3 Glob totallyy millions of mountain al needy white plague expeditious constructions to do their beveling transactions. officious ph bingles as a doohickey with juicy certification measure standards and direct touch onions, allows customers to admittance a full(a) invest of office staff by reveal the ground. This is collectible to the service of the active and meshwork situateing which the agile imposture brings both(prenominal) banking channels to abideher as a compact and superiorly personal channel to take a crap spry banking a reality. 31 The supple twist equivalentwise pre directs modern opportunities in remuneration social organization in that locationby formulating an slack means for transacting bearments through the innovational combination of diligent engine room. busy eddys energize greater reach all around the macrocosm e particular(prenominal)ly in pa roleing nations with get off friendship of its worldly concern. At the analogous judgment of conviction they provide a lush and legal way for customers to pose m wholenessy to dependants in different countries or location.As it is tell, expeditious banking is wide intelligence service in Africa which started by in countries as S come bring out of the closeth Africa, Kenya and Nigeria where active ph wiz substance ab users especially in the urban beas traded proceedings by move quotes to their relatives in villages in order to enunciate with them when the need arises. just now past(prenominal) these transactions besidesk up an increased line by make aw beness for ready banking deriving incompatible erratic banking computer programs much(prenominal) as the SMS, WAP and so forth 21In western hemisphere Africa, there be concerns on how this wad be apparatuse and how the customers w ould embrace such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) technology. This go forth be covered carry on in chapter 2 and 5. The busy banking transaction consists of triple main components and these arThe User Customers who make use of the coveringThe cunning lively handset, arranger etcThe busy interlock operator (MNO) These rear end be Financial Institutions, roving service provider or combination of both.The user base supplicate for the service utilize a ready gubbins which connects the invitee natural covering program and the MNO through a radio receiver network, GPRS and so on 28The bustling phone has fashion an invasive device which has fewer losss than virtually technologies. The effect to this spate be said establish on its acumen in poor economies (Africa in particular) and a customers demand for the use of tele colloquy. With a vigorous phone, people female genital organ be reach fitted and restrain a gear up bustling device in the ornament of their hands to easily loll nurture anytime they zest which makes communication well-to-do.The fluent interlock Operator whitethorn excessively be categorise as a waiter supplier which serves as a link amid the unsettled user and the active phone in transacting selective information. 10 fluent banking offers the position of increasing the efficiency of payment arrangings and as well as expanding the assenting to monetary work. These objectives whitethorn be in latent hostility establish on monetary integrity or consumer protection. 31 unstable banking has also had its criticisms, one organism surety. The fact salvage remains that there ar measures in place to tackle such assay of exposures k nonted especially in marges of role player or cash laundry. 29The planetary banking services eat up expanded in Africa cutting crossways East, tungsten and the southern theatrical role of Africa. In Kenya today, a customer push aside send bul lion via quick victimization the curt Message dishs (SMS) officious banking syllabus. 24It has been spoken al more or less the potential magnification for nimble banking as its aw beness progress tos around Africa and how it could lower the cost of banking and build a customer-banker relationship. 6In utilizeing a supple banking structure, there argon varieties of unsettled banking programs such as pathetic Message hold iner (SMS), expeditious wind vane (WAP) and energetic Client masking (J2ME, BREW etc.) and so on. Each smooth banking platform has its strengths and weaknesses which in effect is important to depict, for this volition enhance get along exploitation in its next prospect and be appropriate for pecuniary services. 17SCOPE AND PURPOSEThe scope of this catch is to follow up a industrious customer base coat exploitation coffee tree application (J2ME) and then ready how good and practiced it pull up s numbers be to a union and u sers. Questions whitethorn be asked why roving lymph gland application. This is because it is at the moment cognize to be the quickest and easiest way of transacting info on the quick device in any disposed time. in that location should be active network coverage for the application to choke. diligent client application also cognize to be standalone nimble application is most suitable to pass for a complex financial transaction. A rudimentary requirement for wide awake client application platform to be utilize is that of the parcel been involve to be downloaded on the roving device rather it could be use, though n evertheless requirements give be needed to prevail the maturement purlieu (J2ME) to function on the device. 20The J2ME client application connects to a server through the wireless modifyd device or GPRS which allow customers sum upon advanceion their bank solid groundments and also perform other banking transactions such as money pitchs, pay storys etc. With the support of Nokia Ltd, developers boast easy access to reading tools by control surfaceing an online community for developers foc utilize in developing applications found on J2ME. 29 indeed the scope highlights a broad view of the go out in implementing a quick banking application using J2ME deep brown 2 application. The hardwargon devices to be apply be a vigorous device and a PC /Laptop. The softwargon tools used ar sunshine coffee berry piano tuner Toolkit 2.5.2 for CLDC, NetBeans IDE 6.8, MySQL server, Apache weathervane server, Edit Plus 3, Notepad etc.The purpose of this visit is to design and implement a mobile banking application demonstrating its benefits and tackling flaws encountered in its death penalty, thereby creating an sense of the banking platforms which outgo go outs a upright and solid means of transacting data in westside Africa. thitherfore i embark on implementing the digest and then demonst stray how it le ave behind function.AIM AND OBJECTIVESThe project is figureed at implementing a mobile banking application to develop its technology and then demonstrate how it could be estimable to developing countries and financial institutions as mobile payment dust is one of the biggest hits in Africa. This give enable mobile network operators who connect to the e trulyday reality of the customers, diversify in what is known as a growing food marketplace and also implement security measures to tell a safe and secure mobile banking transaction.The objectives of this project that has been conjecture to aid the murder and success of the project argonTo feel into reliable ready banking platforms, order actings and technologies used in west Africa and how effective and productive it has been to the countries/nations. This was carried out with the aid of Journals, articles and information from the internet and media.To investigate and determine the benefits, threats, and weaknesses of implementing a mobile banking application in westmost Afri send packing region.To investigate on the security breaches in existence and measures to be taken into consideration when implementing the application collectable to a high risk of data exposure in that region.To subtract techniques to be used to implement the application on a mobile device.To design, test and implement a secure mobile client application to make easy access to customers checking their greenback balances through Mobile coffee enabled devices etcBACKGROUND OF THE purge (OVERVIEW) publications Review (Chapter 2)This chapter pass on analyze, investigate and discuss views on the methods involved in implementing a mobile client application in western Africa and how this endure be employ. Various challenges that may part the implementation entrust be discussed thereby formulating a means of understand its challenges and how to improve the accepted situation.The author provide also address full gen eral questions arising from exploration of countries in atomic number 74 Africa (Nigeria and gold coast in particular) and how this go away be solved. expression of Mobile Banking (Chapter 3)This chapter volition explain the structure, meaning and various types of mobile banking in existence. With a clear structure in place, the project go away encompass methods and locomote to underwrite a successful implementation of mobile banking platforms in watt Africa.Mobile Banking Implementation (Chapter 4)This chapter critically examines the implementation work out involved in deriving a method that can be implemented, locomote to be taken into consideration and testing of the application. The various steps taken go out be derived from Unified Software Development bear upon (USDP). USDP is a generic process for the UML and go out apply the iterative lifecycle mannequin of USDP. 17 10Project shutting and Recommendation (Chapter 5)The final chapter depart encapsulate the front(prenominal) chapters and the author volition discuss on that development to ensure the progress of the project, future improvement in the transcription designed and how it ordain be beneficial to the drive study chosen. The remainder leave alone sing about the state at which the project was completed and what more can be implemented.CHAPTER 2 belles-lettres REVIEW AND PROBLEM DEFINITIONLITERATURE REVIEWThis Literature review is about addressing general questions arising from exploration of countries in the western African region in particular. As i mentioned early in the previous chapter, one of the objectives of this project is to investigate the use of mobile banking in western hemisphere Africa, and then determine which mobile banking platform opera hat suites the economies and masses by further expanding the view based on its availability, availability, affordability and security. 29 In carrying out my look into, i limited my assay on few West African countri es to retain the time limit and information given in completing this project. at that place are 15 countries in West Africa and in my research i will engage on using a ensample size of it (limiting my search to two countries Nigeria and gold coast), whereby i will analyze and investigate the development of mobile banking and its effect caused in the implementation in those countries. 2This will enable a fair view pass in my conclusion thereby concluding on which mobile platform can best be employ. Both countries (Nigeria gold coast) fork up active Mobile banking initiatives present-day(prenominal)ly implemented exclusively as low and middle in get countries enjoyively, they come from different scratch line points and face different issues. As such, they help to vomit the particular questions which are focused to derive a result in the implementation of Mobile banking in West Africa. These few questions areWhat is accident to mobile banking in these developing countri es, and is it kindredly to lead to greater accessibility and affordability?Will Mobile banking in West Africa develop spontaneously and will there be an enablement required for it to function effectively?What are the measures in place (if any) to ensure a fast and secure means of mobile banking.Are financial institutions aware of Mobile banking in Nigeria and Ghana and what mobile banking platforms rush been applied?What benefit does Mobile banking contri scarcee to the prudence and how will the customers embrace such technology?In this project, various investigations are carried out to identify the elements of an purlieu in adopting Mobile banking methods which would maximize the likelihood of access to financial services and how it will expand greatly in West Africa. Because of its restricted time and focus, the project was designed to be exploratory, rather than definitive (seeking to understand what was hap in both countries mentioned above) and in the process develop an ap proach towards market development and awareness of which could be of wider value across the continent. The project comprised the by-line elements Investigation on existing mobile banking platforms used as mentioned earlier and the different approaches adopted in different Countries.In my research, i cognise that mobile banking platforms follow a wide range of mobile application expansion in West Africa where so legion(predicate) banks are embarking on the outline. This was because of the success of new mobile devices manufacture to provide excellent characteristics with overlarger processing power, large touchstone of warehousing, enabled Java computer programing and GPRS/GPS service.4Furthermore, mobile network operators in the Western region of Africa adopted 2.5G network, which uses GPRS as an information bearer. With the expansion of 3G networks, it has make mobile banking more productive. These type of networks enable greater amount of data to be transmitted betwixt the client and server applications using much secure and stable connectivity. 4 With the adoption of the 2G network, WAP was implemented and due to disadvantages in term of security and availability, the development of the mobile client application was acceded. WAP mobile application was useful for less powerful mobile devices. 4 9Taking a look at other West African countries like Gambia, Guinea, Mali, Niger etc. in which they know little about mobile banking, with an awareness and banks adopting mobile banking platforms, these nations will adopt mobile banking platforms.The vast major countries in West Africa in which mobile banking is implemented are Ghana, Nigeria, Liberia and few others. 3In carrying out my psychoanalysis on the suppuration and implementation of mobile banking in West Africa, i looked at developing countries in that region and examined how effective mobile banking can be. In my research, i sampled two countries Nigeria and Ghana and examined all aspects rel ating to the project topic. seek ON bustling BANKING IN NIGERIA AND GHANAThe growth of Mobile banking in Nigeria started in 2006 beginning with the SMS governing body of banking which is widely communal and still skillful. The WAP and Mobile client application ashes started in 2008 and ever since has been expanding in technology. earnings banking is one of the mobile banking ashess that had a low penetration rate in Nigeria due to poor internet facilities and a high cost of getting internet service (Table 2.1).3Globa Com a Mobile Network Operator (MNO) uses the SMS organisation of banking in collaboration using nigh banks in the country.harmonize to the positive of Globa Com, in which he tell that Glo Mobile banking subscribers will soon have access to paying bills and other emolument bills on their mobile with a collaboration with several financial organizations. This proves the growth and expansion on Mobile banking in Nigeria and the rest of West Africa. As at 2008, the internet banking system had a 6% penetration rate in a world of 140million in Nigeria. In regards to mobile banking, its penetration rate is close to 50% with a prospect for more expansion as canvass under. 4 wizard may ask why a large difference between both banking systems. This is due to low infrastructure and technology in satellite transmission across West Africa.In Ghana, at that place are measures to ensure the wide spread of Mobile banking services for technical banks have been conscious to introduce mobile banking platforms to enable its customers in carrying out banking services redden outside the banking premises which was the only way to assign funds, check balances etc. 5Mobile banking service penetrationAs analyzed above in table 2.1, mobile banking services has penetrated in both countries compared to internet banking which has very low penetration. For Mobile client applications to be implemented, a mobile device with GPRS, WAP enabled and java compati bility should be used. These applications implement secure API and tissue service technology.Mobile banking features on a mobile phone have been provided to users in which it is secure and easy to use. This idea is a free-enterprise(a) advantage on the market of mobile phone manufacturers in which competitive advantage is the possibility of success. 13Emmanuel Okoegwale stated in his report that offshore transfer of WAP mobile banking was a mishap based on an internet-based technology applied to the mobile which was a slow, fallible and costly system for customers in Nigeria with poor coverage, handset limitation and curt customer awareness to the system. At the moment, the SMS system of banking is preponderating for mobile banking transaction. 4 engineering scienceWith the standardization of the 3rd coevals mobile communication systems in 2000, technology became a vital impart in the world of mobile banking. In 2000, 2.5G 2.75G network increased the data transmission. Then , the 3G network system which transmits wideband TDMA and CDMA, congresswoman and high bit-rate data and portable units. There are speculations of the 4th generation mobile communication systems called the 4G to be implemented in 2010. The current mobile technology used in Ghana and Nigeria areSMS (The beseech state? text application)WAP (Web application)J2ME (Java application) curt Message ServiceThe Short Message Service system involves a user and a Mobile Network Operator exchanging text messages through a secure encrypted channel. besides first, the user necessitate to be registered with the bank to receive the facility. Once registered by the bank, the user will be advised a text will be sent to him to confirm the registration. The service will then be registered and the user would be able to receive text alert once in a while especially when a transaction has taken place in the customers account. The structure of a secure SMS system is therefore highlighted below.An SMS System of bankingWith the SMS system, the user can request for his current balance by (requesting) sending a text to a bank message jurisprudence and then get a resolution. The message code helps to identify the user and then fuck his request, in which it will initiate a response (sending his current balance). The disadvantage of SMS system of banking is that scammers send SMS messages identifying themselves as the bank, and also request for further bank details from the user such as signal flag image, account number etc. This fraud has do the SMS system of banking insecure. This method is still experient in Nigeria and Ghana respectively as i was able to identify that as a challenge.Another disadvantage is the user cannot store his credit card information on the mobile devices to pay a bill due to poor mobile infrastructure in place in West Africa. Also, no payment history can be derived from the mobile device when using an SMS system of banking.WAP (Web Application)The WAP system uses an internet browser on a mobile device. The user accesses his account from the banks website. This is alike(p) to internet banking practiced on a PC or laptop. A major force in the WAP system is old mobile handsets have no inbuilt mobile browser, therefore restricting users in using such method.In Ghana and Nigeria, most mobile handset users use sophisticated handsets with GPRS, 3G and wireless enabled. Few banks such as Diamond, Intercontinental, Bank PHP and Ghanian Commercial bank have adopted this method of banking, but withal to completely introduce it to all their customers. This is due to the long wait and surgery their customers have to take in registering for the facility. Some banks have created a special web foliate which will be suitable for their customers to register on their mobile screens.Mobile browsers are vulnerable to the same security risk been experienced in internet banking. However, there are differences in scathe of safer means of transact ing data on a mobile device than on the PC or laptop. This is because as at June 2009,21a creators of Trojan horses viruses and other types have not in full focused on the mobile market though viruses still strike mobile devices, but it is not as rampant as the PC or laptop.J2ME (Java Application)J2ME is classified as an application used to implement a mobile client application. This application needs to be downloaded and installed on a mobile device which is java enabled, and then cerebrate directly to a server. The application is said to require an effort to install, but it is known to enough popular around the world. This is because it is faster than logging into the web browser to access a banks website. With further development in its technology, its user interface will be much easier to navigate.21aApplications as this are exceedingly secure due to its implementation and information designed to function with a security algorithm, whereby all banks use different security algorithms.The disadvantage in using this method is programs downloaded on a mobile device can be stored and if not signed or logged out, it could be vulnerable to security risk. This can be tackled by introducing a timeout system method when implementing the code.21aCONNECTIVITYThere are various network connectivity used in mobile transmission.Network ConnectivityMobile device users communicate using wireless networks anywhere at any given time. Mobile devices can be committed as well at any place and at anytime to the wireless network. Wireless network connectivity are regulated by frequencies. The user receives wireless network connection on his mobile on the frequency and wavelength of the antenna. Signal problems may occur based on the blocking and reflection of large edifices, the size of wavelength may be too small and the distance of the wireless antennas (mast) may be too far. This has been further tackled in developed nations, but West African countries still experience t hese problems. Signals can take many different paths and may case delay (3-12 micro seconds). 17The effects of low or no signals in West Africa are based on short and long term attenuation of the signals. The short term fading can be classified as buildings, hills, trees etc., while the long term fading can be said to be the distance between the vector and the receiver, for it may modify when the user moves to a different coverage area.MOBILE PLATFORMSMobile devices come in different ranges, shapes and sizes. This is why mobile developers cannot system the same mobile platforms for another mobile device. For example, mobile applications developed to function on a Nokia handset will not function on a Windows Mobile/ Windows CE handset, though some applications may function on handsets fabricate by different companies. An example is the snake punt on a Nokia and Sony Ericsson handset. This is due to the specification in both devices which will be further explained. Also, these de vices are manufactured by different companies using different techniques. Mobile devices are categorised into littlesoft PDA and impertinent phonesThese devices use a mobile 5 and 2003 pocket edition platform to function. Types of devices in these categories are XDA, SPV-M, MDA, I-MATE, HTC S623 etc.Nokia and Sony Ericsson DevicesThese devices use a Symbian platform to function. Types of devices in these categories are P900, N series, W series, 9300 communicator etc. sass Blackberry DeviceThe berry device is a unique kind of device, for it has its unique platform and for such features (such as fight back e-mails) to function, it will need to register with RIM company, and then be connected to the blackberry enterprise server (BES). With other devices such the HTC device you can download the outlook e-mail feature from the mobile web.laurel wreath Smart phonesThe palm device also uses Microsoft mobile 5 platforms along with the palm Operating System (OS) platform. Devices in thi s category are Treo 600, Treo 650, Centro, Palm pre etc.Microsoft PDA phones, last word phones are also manufactured by Sony Ericsson, Nokia, Palm and other mobile companies. These devices have similar functions which areThey have the push e-mail functionYou can create, edit and read on the device using applications such as word, powerpoint, spreadsheets etc.There are differences between using a blackberry device and other devices. As mentioned earlier, the blackberry device is a unique kind and this has make its devices more demanding and competitive in the mobile market.Analysing these mobile devices in terms of usage in Nigeria and Ghana, most people are so focus driven when new kinds of mobile handsets are introduced into the market. They look forward to having one without the knowledge of its features or technology.The mobile platforms in use are listed and some are explained belowSymbian platformPalm OS platformJava platformRIM (Blackberry) platformWindows Mobile platformLinu x platformSymbian platformThe name Symbian was derived based on Microsofts domination in the mobile market, therefore making iv mobile companies ( Ericsson, Panasonic, Motorola and Nokia) along with the development team of Psion (a UK based company) form a new company called Symbian. The Symbian platform was also called EPOS.Symbian is known to be an open come operating(a) system (OS) specifically designed for mobile devices and smart phones with frameworks, libraries and user interface originally developed by the company Symbian LTD. 29bThe Symbian platform is specifically engineered to apportion error (which is similar to Java) and uses the concept of a server rather than traditional device drivers. The Symbian platform uses an SDK development environment. Figure 2.3 shows the architecture of the Symbian platform.Java platformJava was developed as a phrase for embedded programming of washing machine, microwaves etc. In 2000, Java wrangle became sophisticated with large clas ses supporting desktop like application and requiring memory resources and meaning(a) processing.The growth of mobile devices reached the critical mass which made Sun re-launch a smaller version of their SDK called J2ME (Java 2 Micro Edition). J2ME now retains integrating with larger SDK Sun like Palm OS and Symbian platforms. The architecture of J2ME (as shown in general anatomy 2.3) was further partitioned into the virtual machines, configurations and profiles(as shown on figure 2.4).The J2ME also has support for OTA provisioning. Java ME technology was created in order to handle the constraints connected with building applications for small devices.Palm OSThe Palm was launched as a software program house developing handwriting recognition software for some manufacturers handheld. In 2001, palm split to become two companies, one responsible for development of operating systems and the other PDAs.Palm functions with a single - laboring third -party totality which was developed by KADAK. It has a real-time operating system which is able to handle hardware interruption while task switching.EVALUATION AND FINDINGSA search was carried out to analyse the current Mobile banking Structure in West Africa and what banking strategies have been implemented to ensure customers have a safe and secure means of Mobile banking.Before implementing a Mobile client application, such evaluations should be carried out by using SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis, this will enable me carryout a proper implementation of Mobile banking in West Africa.In achieving my findings, I carried out various objectives which are listed belowI carried out a search to analyse the current Mobile banking Structure existing in West Africa and how effective, accessible and affordable it has been to the economies or nations. This was carried out with the aid of Journals, Articles and information from the internet and media.Results The mobile banking platforms in exi stence are SMS, WAP and Mobile client application.An evaluation of my findings from my literature search was carried out to determine the benefits, threats, and the weaknesses of implementing a mobile banking application in West African region.Results The benefits are greater expansion in banking facility and the economy at large. warrantor measures were derived when implementing the application due to a high risk of data protection in that region.What techniques were introduced in current mobile banking platforms?Results Techniques derived to implement the application on a mobile device are SMS alert system, banking advertisement and customer-to-bank relationship. analytic thinking AND INVESTIGATIONAnalysis and investigation are issues that may arise when implementing a mobile banking platform. To investigate the above given aim and objectives, ill be using a range of resources, like books, journals, but the main source of my information will be the Internet resources from news web sites, white cover and government publications etc. thereby providing an up-to-date information to carryout my research. This method was adopted due to constrains in distance and information from West African countries.According to Sola fanawopo(2008) on the growth in mobile banking services in Nigeria, he stated that some of the transactions that can be conducted with Glo Mobile banking take checking balances, viewing of the last five transactions on account. He also stated Glo Mobile (Owner by Globa Com) subscribers can transfer money from one account to another within the same bank.23 Emmanuel Okoegwale in an article went further to elaborate on when Nigeria started using Mobile banking system which he said started by transaction based activities whereby customers were notified through the SMS system of banking in respect to the youthful banking transactions done on their account.3With the recent penetration of internet and Java enabled mobile devices, Nigerian banks deployed full raise banking through mobile device with various means of services made available, but this was made possible in the bank. The internet being a channel to mobile banking had penetration rate of 6 percent (%) in a existence of 140million,with mobile technology been close to 50 percent (%) penetration with prospect for growth.( see table 2.1) 4The banking sector in Ghana has witnessed a significant amount of transformation in the adoption of banking which also known in Ghana as m-banking.3According to Daniel Nonors report on mobile banking in Ghana, he said subscribers to the facility in Ghana still account for a tiny percentage of the banking public, but fast gaining grounds?. He went further to explain the use of advanced mobile phones and services by Ghanaians who have embraced the mobile technology. 1One of Ghanaians top banks Ghana Commercial bank GCB is yet to introduce the mobile client system of banking to their customers in 2010. 24MTN ( one of West Africans mobile service operators launched mobile banking in Ghana called MTN Mobile Money which will allow customers pay for utility services, transfer money and other banking services. For this to function, customers will have to register with allow mobile money agents or partnership banks. 5Ivatury and Mas (2008) predicted that poor people in developing countries are more likely to use mobile phones in undertaking financial transactions. 8However, there exists poor internet connectivity in most countries in West AfDesign of Mobile Banking ApplicationDesign of Mobile Banking ApplicationMobile banking is the topic of today as internet banking was a few years ago. 3 Globally millions of people already use mobile devices to do their banking transactions. Mobile phones as a device with high security standards and direct connections, allows customers to access a wide range of services throughout the world. This is due to the success of the mobile and internet banking which the mobile device brings bo th banking channels in concert as a compact and highly personal channel to make mobile banking a reality. 31 The mobile device also presents new opportunities in payment structure thereby formulating an easy means for transacting payments through the innovative combination of mobile technology.Mobile devices have greater reach all around the world especially in developing nations with lower knowledge of its existence. At the same time they provide a fast and effective way for customers to send money to dependants in other countries or location.As it is said, Mobile banking is big news in Africa which started out in countries as South Africa, Kenya and Nigeria where mobile phone users especially in the urban areas traded minutes by sending credits to their relatives in villages in order to communicate with them when the need arises. But then these transactions took up an increased trend by building awareness for Mobile banking deriving various mobile banking platforms such as the SMS , WAP etc. 21In West Africa, there are concerns on how this can be implemented and how the customers would embrace such technology. This will be discussed further in chapter 2 and 5. The mobile banking transaction consists of three main components and these areThe User Customers who make use of the applicationThe Device Mobile handset, PDA etcThe Mobile Network Operator (MNO) These can be Financial Institutions, Mobile service provider or combination of both.The user can request for the service using a mobile device which connects the client application and the MNO through a wireless network, GPRS etc. 28The mobile phone has become an invasive device which has fewer disadvantages than most technologies. The answer to this can be said based on its penetration in poor economies (Africa in particular) and a customers demand for the use of telecommunication. With a mobile phone, people can be reachable and have a secure mobile device in the palm of their hands to easily get informati on anytime they desire which makes communication easy.The Mobile Network Operator may also be classified as a server supplier which serves as a link between the mobile user and the mobile phone in transacting data. 10Mobile banking offers the prospect of increasing the efficiency of payment systems and also expanding the access to financial services. These objectives may be in tension based on financial integrity or consumer protection. 31 Mobile banking has also had its criticisms, one being security. The fact still remains that there are measures in place to tackle such risks involved especially in terms of fraud or money laundry. 29The mobile banking services have expanded in Africa cutting across East, West and the southern region of Africa. In Kenya today, a customer can send money via mobile using the Short Message Services (SMS) mobile banking platform. 24It has been spoken about the potential expansion for mobile banking as its awareness builds around Africa and how it could lower the cost of banking and build a customer-banker relationship. 6In implementing a mobile banking structure, there are varieties of mobile banking platforms such as short Message Service (SMS), Mobile web (WAP) and Mobile Client application (J2ME, BREW etc.) and so on. Each Mobile banking platform has its strengths and weaknesses which in effect is important to identify, for this will enhance further development in its future prospect and be appropriate for financial services. 17SCOPE AND PURPOSEThe scope of this project is to implement a mobile client based application using Java application (J2ME) and then determine how effective and secure it will be to a society and users. Questions may be asked why mobile client application. This is because it is at the moment known to be the quickest and easiest way of transacting data on the mobile device in any given time. There should be mobile network coverage for the application to function.Mobile client application also known to be standalone mobile application is most suitable to implement for a complex financial transaction. A basic requirement for mobile client application platform to be implemented is that of the software been required to be downloaded on the mobile device before it could be used, though further requirements will be needed to support the development environment (J2ME) to function on the device. 20The J2ME client application connects to a server through the wireless enabled device or GPRS which allow customers gain access their bank statements and also perform other banking transactions such as money transfers, pay bills etc. With the support of Nokia Ltd, developers have easy access to development tools by opening an online community for developers focused in developing applications based on J2ME. 29Therefore the scope highlights a broad view of the project in implementing a mobile banking application using J2ME Java 2 application. The hardware devices to be used are a Mobile device and a PC /Laptop. The software tools used are Sun Java Wireless Toolkit 2.5.2 for CLDC, NetBeans IDE 6.8, MySQL server, Apache web server, Edit Plus 3, Notepad etc.The purpose of this project is to design and implement a mobile banking application demonstrating its benefits and tackling flaws encountered in its implementation, thereby creating an awareness of the banking platforms which best ensures a safe and secure means of transacting data in West Africa. Therefore i embark on implementing the project and then demonstrate how it will function.AIM AND OBJECTIVESThe project is aimed at implementing a mobile banking application to develop its technology and then demonstrate how it could be beneficial to developing countries and financial institutions as mobile payment system is one of the biggest hits in Africa. This will enable mobile network operators who connect to the everyday reality of the customers, diversify in what is known as a growing market and also implement security measur es to ensure a safe and secure mobile banking transaction.The objectives of this project that has been formulated to aid the implementation and success of the project areTo investigate current Mobile banking platforms, methods and technologies used in West Africa and how effective and productive it has been to the countries/nations. This was carried out with the aid of Journals, articles and information from the internet and media.To investigate and determine the benefits, threats, and weaknesses of implementing a mobile banking application in West African region.To investigate on the security breaches in existence and measures to be taken into consideration when implementing the application due to a high risk of data exposure in that region.To derive techniques to be used to implement the application on a mobile device.To design, test and implement a secure mobile client application to make easy access to customers checking their account balances through Mobile Java enabled devices etcBACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT (OVERVIEW)Literature Review (Chapter 2)This chapter will analyze, investigate and discuss views on the methods involved in implementing a mobile client application in West Africa and how this can be implemented. Various challenges that may disrupt the implementation will be discussed thereby formulating a means of solving its challenges and how to improve the current situation.The author will also address general questions arising from exploration of countries in West Africa (Nigeria and Ghana in particular) and how this will be solved.Structure of Mobile Banking (Chapter 3)This chapter will explain the structure, meaning and various types of mobile banking in existence. With a clear structure in place, the project will encompass methods and steps to ensure a successful implementation of mobile banking platforms in West Africa.Mobile Banking Implementation (Chapter 4)This chapter critically examines the implementation process involved in deriving a m ethod that can be implemented, steps to be taken into consideration and testing of the application. The various steps taken will be derived from Unified Software Development Process (USDP). USDP is a generic process for the UML and will apply the iterative lifecycle model of USDP. 17 10Project Conclusion and Recommendation (Chapter 5)The final chapter will encapsulate the previous chapters and the author will discuss on further development to ensure the progress of the project, future improvement in the system designed and how it will be beneficial to the case study chosen. The conclusion will talk about the state at which the project was completed and what more can be implemented.CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW AND PROBLEM DEFINITIONLITERATURE REVIEWThis Literature review is about addressing general questions arising from exploration of countries in the West African region in particular. As i mentioned earlier in the previous chapter, one of the objectives of this project is to investi gate the use of mobile banking in West Africa, and then determine which mobile banking platform best suites the economies and masses by further expanding the view based on its availability, accessibility, affordability and security. 29 In carrying out my research, i limited my search on few West African countries to accommodate the time limit and information given in completing this project.There are 15 countries in West Africa but in my research i will engage on using a sample size (limiting my search to two countries Nigeria and Ghana), whereby i will analyze and investigate the development of mobile banking and its effect caused in the implementation in those countries. 2This will enable a fair view recommendation in my conclusion thereby concluding on which mobile platform can best be applied. Both countries (Nigeria Ghana) have active Mobile banking initiatives currently implemented but as low and middle income countries respectively, they come from different starting points and face different issues. As such, they help to frame the particular questions which are focused to derive a result in the implementation of Mobile banking in West Africa. These few questions areWhat is happening to mobile banking in these developing countries, and is it likely to lead to greater accessibility and affordability?Will Mobile banking in West Africa develop spontaneously and will there be an enablement required for it to function effectively?What are the measures in place (if any) to ensure a fast and secure means of mobile banking.Are financial institutions aware of Mobile banking in Nigeria and Ghana and what mobile banking platforms have been applied?What benefit does Mobile banking contribute to the economy and how will the customers embrace such technology?In this project, various investigations are carried out to identify the elements of an environment in adopting Mobile banking methods which would maximize the likelihood of access to financial services and how i t will expand greatly in West Africa. Because of its restricted time and focus, the project was designed to be exploratory, rather than definitive (seeking to understand what was happening in both countries mentioned above) and in the process develop an approach towards market development and awareness of which could be of wider value across the continent. The project comprised the following elements Investigation on existing mobile banking platforms used as mentioned earlier and the different approaches adopted in different Countries.In my research, i realized that mobile banking platforms follow a wide range of mobile application expansion in West Africa where so many banks are embarking on the system. This was because of the success of new mobile devices manufactured to provide excellent characteristics with larger processing power, large amount of memory, enabled Java programming and GPRS/GPS service.4Furthermore, mobile network operators in the Western region of Africa adopted 2.5G network, which uses GPRS as an information bearer. With the expansion of 3G networks, it has made mobile banking more productive. These type of networks enable greater amount of data to be transmitted between the client and server applications using much secure and stable connectivity. 4 With the adoption of the 2G network, WAP was implemented and due to disadvantages in terms of security and availability, the development of the mobile client application was introduced. WAP mobile application was useful for less powerful mobile devices. 4 9Taking a look at other West African countries like Gambia, Guinea, Mali, Niger etc. in which they know little about mobile banking, with an awareness and banks adopting mobile banking platforms, these nations will adopt mobile banking platforms.The vast major countries in West Africa in which mobile banking is implemented are Ghana, Nigeria, Liberia and few others. 3In carrying out my analysis on the growth and implementation of mobile bankin g in West Africa, i looked at developing countries in that region and examined how effective mobile banking can be. In my research, i sampled two countries Nigeria and Ghana and examined all aspects relating to the project topic.RESEARCH ON MOBILE BANKING IN NIGERIA AND GHANAThe growth of Mobile banking in Nigeria started in 2006 beginning with the SMS system of banking which is widely common and still practiced. The WAP and Mobile client application system started in 2008 and ever since has been expanding in technology. Internet banking is one of the mobile banking systems that had a low penetration rate in Nigeria due to poor internet facilities and a high cost of acquiring internet service (Table 2.1).3Globa Com a Mobile Network Operator (MNO) uses the SMS system of banking in collaboration using some banks in the country.According to the official of Globa Com, in which he stated that Glo Mobile banking subscribers will soon have access to paying bills and other utility bills o n their mobile with a collaboration with several financial organizations. This proves the growth and expansion on Mobile banking in Nigeria and the rest of West Africa. As at 2008, the internet banking system had a 6% penetration rate in a population of 140million in Nigeria. In regards to mobile banking, its penetration rate is close to 50% with a prospect for more expansion as analyzed below. 4One may ask why a large difference between both banking systems. This is due to low infrastructure and technology in satellite transmission across West Africa.In Ghana, There are measures to ensure the wide spread of Mobile banking services for commercial banks have been advised to introduce mobile banking platforms to enable its customers in carrying out banking services even outside the banking premises which was the only way to transfer funds, check balances etc. 5Mobile banking service penetrationAs analyzed above in table 2.1, mobile banking services has penetrated in both countries com pared to internet banking which has very low penetration. For Mobile client applications to be implemented, a mobile device with GPRS, WAP enabled and java compatibility should be used. These applications implement secure API and web service technology.Mobile banking features on a mobile phone have been provided to users in which it is secure and easy to use. This concept is a competitive advantage on the market of mobile phone manufacturers in which competitive advantage is the possibility of success. 13Emmanuel Okoegwale stated in his report that offshore transfer of WAP mobile banking was a disaster based on an internet-based technology applied to the mobile which was a slow, unreliable and costly system for customers in Nigeria with poor coverage, handset limitation and inadequate customer awareness to the system. At the moment, the SMS system of banking is dominant for mobile banking transaction. 4TECHNOLOGYWith the standardization of the 3rd generation mobile communication sys tems in 2000, technology became a vital impart in the world of mobile banking. In 2000, 2.5G 2.75G network increased the data transmission. Then, the 3G network system which transmits wideband TDMA and CDMA, voice and high bit-rate data and portable units. There are speculations of the 4th generation mobile communication systems called the 4G to be implemented in 2010. The current mobile technology used in Ghana and Nigeria areSMS (The request reply? text application)WAP (Web application)J2ME (Java application)Short Message ServiceThe Short Message Service system involves a user and a Mobile Network Operator exchanging text messages through a secure encrypted channel. But first, the user needs to be registered with the bank to receive the facility. Once registered by the bank, the user will be advised a text will be sent to him to confirm the registration. The service will then be registered and the user would be able to receive text alert once in a while especially when a transac tion has taken place in the customers account. The structure of a secure SMS system is therefore highlighted below.An SMS System of bankingWith the SMS system, the user can request for his current balance by (requesting) sending a text to a bank message code and then get a response. The message code helps to identify the user and then recognise his request, in which it will initiate a response (sending his current balance). The disadvantage of SMS system of banking is that scammers send SMS messages identifying themselves as the bank, and also request for further bank details from the user such as PIN number, account number etc. This fraud has made the SMS system of banking insecure. This method is still experienced in Nigeria and Ghana respectively as i was able to identify that as a challenge.Another disadvantage is the user cannot store his credit card information on the mobile devices to pay a bill due to poor mobile infrastructure in place in West Africa. Also, no payment histo ry can be derived from the mobile device when using an SMS system of banking.WAP (Web Application)The WAP system uses an internet browser on a mobile device. The user accesses his account from the banks website. This is similar to internet banking practiced on a PC or laptop. A major constrain in the WAP system is old mobile handsets have no built-in mobile browser, therefore restricting users in using such method.In Ghana and Nigeria, most mobile handset users use sophisticated handsets with GPRS, 3G and wireless enabled. Few banks such as Diamond, Intercontinental, Bank PHP and Ghanaian Commercial bank have adopted this method of banking, but yet to completely introduce it to all their customers. This is due to the long wait and procedure their customers have to take in registering for the facility. Some banks have created a special web page which will be suitable for their customers to register on their mobile screens.Mobile browsers are vulnerable to the same security risk been experienced in internet banking. However, there are differences in terms of safer means of transacting data on a mobile device than on the PC or laptop. This is because as at June 2009,21a creators of Trojan horses viruses and other types have not fully focused on the mobile market though viruses still affect mobile devices, but it is not as rampant as the PC or laptop.J2ME (Java Application)J2ME is classified as an application used to implement a mobile client application. This application needs to be downloaded and installed on a mobile device which is java enabled, and then linked directly to a server. The application is said to require an effort to install, but it is known to becoming popular around the world. This is because it is faster than logging into the web browser to access a banks website. With further development in its technology, its user interface will be much easier to navigate.21aApplications as this are highly secure due to its implementation and information desi gned to function with a security algorithm, whereby all banks use different security algorithms.The disadvantage in using this method is programs downloaded on a mobile device can be stored and if not signed or logged out, it could be vulnerable to security risk. This can be tackled by introducing a timeout system method when implementing the code.21aCONNECTIVITYThere are various network connectivity used in mobile transmission.Network ConnectivityMobile device users communicate using wireless networks anywhere at any given time. Mobile devices can be connected as well at any place and at anytime to the wireless network. Wireless network connectivity are regulated by frequencies. The user receives wireless network connection on his mobile on the frequency and wavelength of the antenna. Signal problems may occur based on the blocking and reflection of large buildings, the size of wavelength may be too small and the distance of the wireless antennas (mast) may be too far. This has bee n further tackled in developed nations, but West African countries still experience these problems. Signals can take many different paths and may case delay (3-12 micro seconds). 17The effects of low or no signals in West Africa are based on short and long term fading of the signals. The short term fading can be classified as buildings, hills, trees etc., while the long term fading can be said to be the distance between the sender and the receiver, for it may change when the user moves to a different coverage area.MOBILE PLATFORMSMobile devices come in different ranges, shapes and sizes. This is why mobile developers cannot system the same mobile platforms for another mobile device. For example, mobile applications developed to function on a Nokia handset will not function on a Windows Mobile/ Windows CE handset, though some applications may function on handsets manufactured by different companies. An example is the snake game on a Nokia and Sony Ericsson handset. This is due to th e specification in both devices which will be further explained. Also, these devices are manufactured by different companies using different techniques. Mobile devices are categorised intoMicrosoft PDA and Smart phonesThese devices use a mobile 5 and 2003 pocket edition platform to function. Types of devices in these categories are XDA, SPV-M, MDA, I-MATE, HTC S623 etc.Nokia and Sony Ericsson DevicesThese devices use a Symbian platform to function. Types of devices in these categories are P900, N series, W series, 9300 communicator etc.RIM Blackberry DeviceThe blackberry device is a unique kind of device, for it has its unique platform and for such features (such as push e-mails) to function, it will need to register with RIM company, and then be connected to the blackberry enterprise server (BES). With other devices such the HTC device you can download the outlook e-mail feature from the mobile web.Palm Smart phonesThe palm device also uses Microsoft mobile 5 platforms along with the palm Operating System (OS) platform. Devices in this category are Treo 600, Treo 650, Centro, Palm pre etc.Microsoft PDA phones, smart phones are also manufactured by Sony Ericsson, Nokia, Palm and other mobile companies. These devices have similar functions which areThey have the push e-mail functionYou can create, edit and read on the device using applications such as word, powerpoint, spreadsheets etc.There are differences between using a blackberry device and other devices. As mentioned earlier, the blackberry device is a unique kind and this has made its devices more demanding and competitive in the mobile market.Analysing these mobile devices in terms of usage in Nigeria and Ghana, most people are so focus driven when new kinds of mobile handsets are introduced into the market. They look forward to having one without the knowledge of its features or technology.The mobile platforms in use are listed and some are explained belowSymbian platformPalm OS platformJava platformRI M (Blackberry) platformWindows Mobile platformLinux platformSymbian platformThe name Symbian was derived based on Microsofts domination in the mobile market, therefore making four mobile companies ( Ericsson, Panasonic, Motorola and Nokia) along with the development team of Psion (a UK based company) form a new company called Symbian. The Symbian platform was also called EPOS.Symbian is known to be an open source operating system (OS) specifically designed for mobile devices and smart phones with frameworks, libraries and user interface originally developed by the company Symbian LTD. 29bThe Symbian platform is specifically engineered to handle error (which is similar to Java) and uses the concept of a server rather than traditional device drivers. The Symbian platform uses an SDK development environment. Figure 2.3 shows the architecture of the Symbian platform.Java platformJava was developed as a language for embedded programming of washing machine, microwaves etc. In 2000, Java language became sophisticated with large classes supporting desktop like application and requiring memory resources and significant processing.The growth of mobile devices reached the critical mass which made Sun re-launch a smaller version of their SDK called J2ME (Java 2 Micro Edition). J2ME now retains integration with larger SDK Sun like Palm OS and Symbian platforms. The architecture of J2ME (as shown in figure 2.3) was further partitioned into the virtual machines, configurations and profiles(as shown on figure 2.4).The J2ME also has support for OTA provisioning. Java ME technology was created in order to handle the constraints connected with building applications for small devices.Palm OSThe Palm was launched as a software house developing handwriting recognition software for some manufacturers handheld. In 2001, palm split to become two companies, one responsible for development of operating systems and the other PDAs.Palm functions with a single -tasking third -party kernel which was developed by KADAK. It has a real-time operating system which is able to handle hardware interruption while task switching.EVALUATION AND FINDINGSA search was carried out to analyse the current Mobile banking Structure in West Africa and what banking strategies have been implemented to ensure customers have a safe and secure means of Mobile banking.Before implementing a Mobile client application, such evaluations should be carried out by using SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis, this will enable me carryout a proper implementation of Mobile banking in West Africa.In achieving my findings, I carried out various objectives which are listed belowI carried out a search to analyse the current Mobile banking Structure existing in West Africa and how effective, accessible and affordable it has been to the economies or nations. This was carried out with the aid of Journals, Articles and information from the internet and media.Results The mobile banki ng platforms in existence are SMS, WAP and Mobile client application.An evaluation of my findings from my literature search was carried out to determine the benefits, threats, and the weaknesses of implementing a mobile banking application in West African region.Results The benefits are greater expansion in banking facility and the economy at large.Security measures were derived when implementing the application due to a high risk of data protection in that region.What techniques were introduced in current mobile banking platforms?Results Techniques derived to implement the application on a mobile device are SMS alert system, banking advertisement and customer-to-bank relationship.ANALYSIS AND INVESTIGATIONAnalysis and investigation are issues that may arise when implementing a mobile banking platform. To investigate the above given aim and objectives, ill be using a range of resources, like books, journals, but the main source of my information will be the Internet resources from n ews websites, white papers and government publications etc. thereby providing an up-to-date information to carryout my research. This method was adopted due to constrains in distance and information from West African countries.According to Sola fanawopo(2008) on the growth in mobile banking services in Nigeria, he stated that some of the transactions that can be conducted with Glo Mobile banking include checking balances, viewing of the last five transactions on account. He also stated Glo Mobile (Owner by Globa Com) subscribers can transfer money from one account to another within the same bank.23 Emmanuel Okoegwale in an article went further to elaborate on when Nigeria started using Mobile banking system which he said started by transaction based activities whereby customers were notified through the SMS system of banking in respect to the recent banking transactions done on their account.3With the recent penetration of internet and Java enabled mobile devices, Nigerian banks de ployed full fledged banking through mobile device with various means of services made available, but this was made possible in the bank. The internet being a channel to mobile banking had penetration rate of 6 percent (%) in a population of 140million,with mobile technology been close to 50 percent (%) penetration with prospect for growth.( see table 2.1) 4The banking sector in Ghana has witnessed a significant amount of transformation in the adoption of banking which also known in Ghana as m-banking.3According to Daniel Nonors report on mobile banking in Ghana, he said subscribers to the facility in Ghana still account for a tiny percentage of the banking public, but fast gaining grounds?. He went further to explain the use of advanced mobile phones and services by Ghanaians who have embraced the mobile technology. 1One of Ghanaians top banks Ghana Commercial bank GCB is yet to introduce the mobile client system of banking to their customers in 2010. 24MTN ( one of West Africans m obile service operators launched mobile banking in Ghana called MTN Mobile Money which will allow customers pay for utility services, transfer money and other banking services. For this to function, customers will have to register with authorized mobile money agents or partnership banks. 5Ivatury and Mas (2008) predicted that poor people in developing countries are more likely to use mobile phones in undertaking financial transactions. 8However, there exists poor internet connectivity in most countries in West Af